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APPENDIX C
The Sant Tradition
Jakobsh repeats verbatim what McLeod has written about
Guru Nanak to make him a part of the so-called “Sant tradition,” an expression
concocted by him:
Guru Nanak has been characterized as
fitting squarely within the Sant parampara
(tradition) and also in a wider sense, the Bhakti milieu of North India. The
tradition rejected the worship of incarnation and Hindu forms of professional
asceticism, spurned the authority of Vedas and other scriptures, and ignored
the ritual barriers between low and high castes. Further, the sants stressed
the use of vernacular language in their rejection of orthodoxy. Central to
their doctrines, and binding them, were their ethical ideals and the notion of
interiority¾rituals, pilgrimages, and idols were
worthless in the quest for liberation; only loving adoration of the Ultimate
mattered. These strong similarities between the various groups who lived by
these ideals have been characterized by W. H. McLeod (1989:25) as Sant
synthesis, a combination of Vaishnava tradition and the Nath tradition, with
possible elements of Sufism as well. What the Sants also had in common was a
stress on the necessity of devotion and practice, the repetition of the divine
name, the devotion to the divine guru (satguru), and the need for the company
of sants (satsang).1
Only
a person who is ignorant of Guru Nanak’s teachings or someone with “ulterior
motives” will place Guru Nanak squarely within the “Sant tradition”¾a combination of Vaishnava tradition and
the Nath tradition, with possible elements of Sufism as well. There is no
historical evidence that there was any tradition called “Sant tradition” in
North India during the time of Guru Nanak. However, it is found in the writings
of Europeans of later eras and popularized by people like W.H. McLeod. Let us
examine these traditions one by one.
First, all the sages of diverse
background, whose thoughts are incorporated in the Aad Guru Granth Sahib (AGGS),
preceded the Sikh Gurus. In the AGGS, the words--sant and bhagat--occur frequently and
interchangeably. Their meaning is the same, and in English, sant has been translated as
a saint, though it does not convey the proper meaning. In the Adi Granth, compiled in 1604 by Guru
Arjan, the honorific “bhagat” is used for Namdev, Kabir, Ravidas and others,
and their banis
(hymns) are called “bhagat bani.” Had they
been known, as “sants” at that time, Guru Arjan would have used the honorific “sant” for them. Thus, the honorific sant came to be associated with their names after 1604.
Second, Nirvikar Singh (in 2001)
in his thought-provoking and analytical article: “Guru
Nanak and the ‘Sants’: A Reappraisal”
questioned the existence of “Sant tradition” in Guru Nanak’s time.2 In response to this article, McLeod
acknowledged the fact that the “Sant tradition” labels applied to North Indian
bhakats (bhagats) such as Kabir and Ravidas does not emerge until the nineteenth century.3
Third, ever
since I studied Guru Nanak and the Sikh
Religion, a thought has been occurring repeatedly in my mind that Reverend
McLeod might have gotten the “Sant tradition” idea from the Radhasoami dera (camp, center) at Beas, which is
not very far from Batala where he held a teaching job at Baring College.
However, I was unable to find any reference in his writings about this possible
connection. Nonetheless, McLeod’s statement “the ‘Sant tradition’ labels
applied to North Indian bhakats (bhagats) such as Kabir and Ravidas does not
emerge until the nineteenth century” points in the direction of the Radhasoami
sect founded by Shiv Dayal Singh (1818-1878) in the 1850s in Agra. Further, in
his autobiography published in 2004, McLeod mentions that in 2001 he attended a
conference of Namdharis,4 who do not believe that Guru Gobind Singh
consecrated Aad Guru Granth Sahib as the Guru of the Sikhs and they have their
own line of physically living Gurus after Guru Gobind Singh. And McLeod keeps
repeating that Guru Gobind Singh did not anoint AGGS as the Guru of Sikhs. My
quest for the evidence that McLeod got the idea of “Sant tradition,” which is a
literal translation of “Sant Mat” of Radhasoamis of Beas, was rewarded soon. My
friend Colonel G.B. Singh surprised me with a book: “The Japji: The Message of Guru Nanak” authored by Kirpal Singh, a
disciple of Baba Sawan Singh. I couldn’t believe my eyes when I saw the
endorsement of this book on the cover by Mark Juergensmeyer, currently Professor of
Religious Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara:
This classic sixteenth century prayer hymn of Guru
Nanak, the Sant who is regarded by Sikhs as the founder of their faith, has
been rendered into powerful English and adjoined with extensive commentary by a
modern master in the Sant tradition, Kirpal Singh. He has unpacked the dense
philosophical language of the original, and provided us with his own
distinctive interpretation, one in which the insights of Guru Nanak are
enhanced by those of Kirpal Singh’s more recent
predecessors¾Sawan Singh, Jaimal Singh and
Swami Shiv Dayal Singh. For that reason the reissue of this readable little
book will be best appreciated by those who wish to understand not only the
medieval Sant tradition but its modern revival as well.5
It
becomes more and more obvious where the missionary from New Zealand picked his
other odious ideas. It is very likely that it was at the Radhasoami center at
Beas where he got the idea that Guru Gobind Singh did not invest Guruship in
Aad Guru Granth Sahib9 and, the
numerically preponderant Jat Sikhs bewail the fact that there was never a
single Jat Guru.10
Now who is
this Kirpal Singh and what are his credentials that qualify him as a great
exponent of Nanakian philosophy, as advertised by Juergensmeyer? Kirpal Singh
(1894-1974) says that for years he investigated the claims of many yogis and
saints before his initiation by Baba Sawan Singh of Beas where he studied
diligently for 24 years under him. Further he stresses that Sawan Singh had
chosen him as his spiritual successor.11 However, he is reluctant to
divulge why he couldn’t succeed Sawan Singh at Beas, but it is not difficult to
figure out why? He was muscled out of Beas by Jats who wanted Jagat Singh
Klare, a Jat as their guru. Jagat Singh, who used to look like a typical
Punjabi “lala”12 started supporting a lavish white beard and Kesh (scalp hair) covered with a neat
impressive “Sikh style” white turban becoming “Sardar Bahadar Jagat Singh Ji
Maharaj”13 ¾
characteristic of a typical “Jat thug.” One may ask what was wrong with his
“lala” appearance? Couldn’t he fly to “sach khand” with his “lala” appearance?
And who gave this “Hindu Jat” the title of “Sardar Bahadur”? The British used
to bestow “Rai Bahadur” and “Sardar Bahadur” titles to Hindu and Sikh toadies,
respectively! Who were Sawan Singh and Jagat Singh trying to deceive and
mislead? Besides, it is a mystery why Jagat Singh left for “sach khand” in such
a hurry in 1951 only three years after Sawan’s flight to “sach khand.” The
Radhasoami literature says that “Masters” can live as long as they like:
“Death
does not come to them as it does to other human beings. When a Master wishes to
leave His body, He simply steps out of it as one casts off an old garment.
Daily they pass through the experience of death in their meditation, when they
take their soul to Higher Regions. … They could remain in their bodies for
centuries or for any number of years if they so wished, but they do not get any
pleasure in doing so.”14
Then why was
Jagat Singh in such a hurry? Could it be that Sawan’s favorite grandson,
“Charana” was in a hurry to become “Maharaj Charan Singh Ji”?
There are
other mysteries about Jagat Singh. According to Radhasoami literature, The Science of the Soul:
He passed away quietly on the morning of 23rd October 1951. The day before, He had dictated His will and given instructions about his funeral. He wanted no show, no waiting for people to attend the cremation. The body was to be cremated within a few hours and the remains were to be consigned to the river on the same day. There is a custom in this country to bathe the dead body, anoint it with perfume etc. and cover it with a clean, new sheet of cloth. He completed this process very simply the night before His death by asking the doctor to give Him an anema, getting His body rubbed with a wet towel and changing into a clean sheet.15
These
statements raise many questions. Why was it necessary for Jagat Singh to have
an enema on the night before his flight to “sach khand”? Radhasoami literature
is filled with references to Yoga and the Chakras in which the yogi’s
“Brahmand” is reflected.16 Yogis were by and large homosexuals who
lived in their own camps on hills and mountains away from the general public.
They practiced the art of sophisticated trickery and magic for their
livelihood. They were essentially parasites without any spiritual attribute or
any positive contribution to society. They indulged in all sorts of sexual
activities to gratify themselves and they were particularly preoccupied with
the “Guda Chakra, Muladhar (anus plexus).” They were also obsessed with the
cleanliness of their internal organs, particularly the rectum. They developed a
technique, Wasti Karam (enema) for flushing the rectum with water through a
hollow bamboo stick, one finger broad and four fingers long passed up through
the anus.17 All the Radhasoami Masters indulged in this practice
more or less routinely.
It
was Jaimal Singh (1838-1903), a Jat of Gurdaspur District, who established the
Radhasoami dera at Beas after his
retirement as a Havildar from the British army in 1889.18 It was at
the instance of Swami Shiv Dayal Singh that he enlisted as a sepoy in the
British army at Agra in 1856.19 It would be interesting to find out
what role Jaimal Singh and his Swami played during the mutiny of 1857!
According to Kirpal Singh, Jaimal Singh’s regiment was disbanded after the
great rebellion of 1857. It seems that
Jaimal Singh must have earned laurels from the British, as he wasted no time in
re-enlisting in the 24th Sikh Regiment at Peshawar in 1858.20 Kirpal Singh describes Jaimal Singh as pursuer
of rigid brahamcharya for he remained
celibate all his years.21 But this does not seem to be correct, as
it is quite evident that he made up for the lost time by having good time with
Bibi Rukko, “the spiritually advanced disciple” of Baba Chanda Singh, who was
also initiated by the Swami Shiv Dyal Singh. When Chanda Singh was ready to fly
to “sach khand,” Bibi Rukko asked, “What was to become of her?” “Fear not my
child” replied the sage, “another greater than myself shall take care of you.”
“Where shall I find him, Sir,” asked Bibi Rukko. “Find him? No, you shall have
no need, for he himself will seek you out.”22 After Jaimal’s ascent
to “sach khand,” Bibi Rukko a “spiritually advanced soul” descended to the
earth, she fought with Sawan and, with a wooden club beat the hell out of
others who were staying at the dera in Beas.23 It would be really
interesting to find out what Sawan did to poor Bibi Rukko! For more important
is to find out how and why that scoundrel Chanda Singh destroyed the life of a
poor helpless woman?
Jaimal
used to amuse himself by calling himself “Jat-guru.”24 The Punjabi
proverb, Jat
machla khuda nu lai gae choar (a Jat can even pretend that thieves stole
God) depicts Jaimal’s character so accurately! Kirpal Singh also claims that
Bhai Bala of “Bala Janam-Sakhi” had prophesied that he would reappear in some
future age at some Jat home and that Jaimal Singh was the reincarnation of Bhai
Bala, who incidentally was also born in Gurdaspur district. He further claims
that Jaimal Singh’s followers “did not fail to note the resemblance between the
two.”25
The
Radhasoami dera at Beas headed by
Jats is like another heretical Jat cult, the Hindalis or Niranjanis founded by
Bidhi Chand, the son of Baba Hindal of Jandiala. He was a contemporary of Guru
Hargobind (1595-1644). Baba Hindal was a devout follower of Guru Amar Das, who
on account of his dedicated service in the Guru’s Langar was appointed to a
position of authority in the Langar (community kitchen).26 The Bala
Janam-Sakhi was created by this cult27 to undermine Nanakian
philosophy.28, 29 They were bitter enemies of the Sikhs and they
supported Ahmad Shah Abdali against the Sikhs.26,30 It is no wonder
why Bala Janam-Sakhi is the favorite “spiritual literature” of Radhasoamis.
Kirpal Singh says, “Guru Nanak had Bhai Bala and Bhai Mardana, one a Hindu and
the other a Mohammedan on his right and left through his travels in Asia.”31
But there is no evidence that Bhai Bala was a close associate of Guru Nanak. In
Bhai Gurdas’ list of prominent Sikhs, the name of Bhai Mardana is near the top
but there is no mention of Bala.32
Moreover,
Guru Nanak rejected all the essentials of Hinduism including reincarnation,
celibacy and ascetic life and denounced yogis and their methodology to attain
salvation. But Kirpal Singh interprets Guru Nanak’s Japji as if Guru Nanak was
a practicing yogi. For the sake of brevity let me cite two instances:
Tithai siot sita mehma mahe.
AGGS,
Jap 37, p. 8.
Kirpal Singh
interprets this verse as “Here dwell devotees with devotion, incomparable as
Sita’s (Sita: The wife of King Rama Chandra known for her great devotion).”33 He interprets “sito
sita” as Rama’s wife Sita whereas it means stitched together (fully
absorbed in contemplation on God, who have merged their identity with God, one
with God). Similarly, in his commentary on celibacy, Kirpal says: In the Shastras (Hindu scriptures) it is stated
that to waste even a drop of semen is equal to death and to conserve it is
life. Guru Nanak has also said, “Whosoever loses semen looses every thing.”34
Now, Guru Nanak was a householder and he rejected and
denounced celibacy and ascetic way of life in no uncertain terms. The
Radhasoami “masters” are not different from other Indian “holy men” or
“evangelist preachers.”
The Vaisnava bhagats were generally Brahmans/upper castes like Ramanuja,
Madhava, Nimbarka, Ramananda, Vallbha and Tulsidas. They were dualistic¾monotheistic
and pantheistic at the same time. They worshiped and adored God whom they
called Narayana and Hari but they also had their favorite deity, the
reincarnation of Vishnu¾Lord Rama or Lord Krishna. They adored Rama and his wife
Sita and, Krishna and his consorts. They accepted the authority of Vedas and
Upanishads and all the doctrines and systems prescribed therein including the
caste system and its social ramifications. They also accepted the doctrine of
incarnation and the external forms of worship, including idol worship,
formalism, rituals and the sanctity of Hindu pilgrim centers. Above all they
were ascetics who advocated celibacy and their thoughts represent the
mainstream of Hindu philosophy going back to the Vedas.36
Moreover, their so-called “bhakti” was an escape from their
societal responsibilities. It was devoid of any spiritual merit altogether. The
advent of political Islam thrust on the Indian horizon in the medieval age
resulted in the alienation of the Hindu society from political power. Instead
of responding to this situation in a positive way, Hindu society of the period
adopted an escapist attitude. Through the bhakti ethos, the drifting of the
“Hindu collective alienation” from political power was completed in due course
of time. The compulsive surrender to political Islam lended a way homologous to
voluntary self-surrender to God; the political alienation brought forth
compensation in re-union with the Divine in hypothetical life hereafter.
The
conservative, retrogressive, nihilistic and pessimistic nature of the Vaishnava
bhakti provided the Hindu elite an ideological legitimatization to their
political alienation, thus rendering them incapacitated and paralyzed on the
sociological level. In other words it was an “illusionary” compensation of moksha (salvation) in Baikunth (heaven) for their loss of
political power and all the privileges that come with it. Niharranjan Ray hits
the nail on the head when he points that the “Vaishanava Bhakti movement
betrayed an attitude of surrendering abjectly and absolutely as much to their
personal God as to the established social order."37
Professor
Mohammed Iqbal, a celebrated poet and a great Islamic thinker of the twentieth
century, does not see any impact of the bhakats on the India society:
The Indian people did not pay any attention to the
message of Gautam. They did not
recognize the value of their ‘flawless diamond’. … India
is a land of sorrow and suffering for the Shudar. There is no compassion in
this place. … Eventually, a voice rose from Punjab proclaiming the unity of
mankind under “One and Only God”. A “perfect man” from Punjab awakened the
conscience of the Indian people with his message of “universal love and
humanism”.
Poem: Nanak
The
abnegation by the Hindu elite of its responsibility to Hindu society and the
country, and their abject surrender to Muslim onslaught did not go unnoticed by
historians:
In the history of the fateful
forty-five years (1295-1345) traced by us so far, the one distressfully
disappointing feature has been the absence, in Maharastra, of the will to
resist the invaders. The people of Maharastra were conquered, oppressed and
humiliated, but they meekly submitted like dumb driven cattle.38
What is painful is that,
sometimes, a handful of foreigners overran vast tracts of the land without
countering any sizable resistance. Shihab-ud-din Gauri won the second battle of
Tarain (near Delhi) in 1192 C. E., and within fourteen years his General,
Bakhtiyar Khilji had reached the bank of Brahmputra. Nadiya was occupied with
an advance party of no more than eighteen horsemen and this opened the way for
the establishment of Muslim rule in Bengal.38 (parenthesis by B.
Singh)
Nevertheless, the Brahman who was the kingpin, ideologue and
the center of Hindu Dharma, missed being a raj mantri (minister of state), raj guru (religious
advisor to the king) and raj prohit (family priest of the king) after the defeat of Rajput
rulers. He was not satisfied with status quo. He turned to the Chanakya
(Kautilya) niti (policy)
of perverse morality¾morality turned upside down, instead of seeking moksha (salvation)
in Baikunth (heaven).39
Instead of praying to the statue of goddess Durga, he turned to the goddess in
flesh¾Rajput
princess; in order to get back not only into the Mughal court but also into the
Mughal palace. He advised the royal Rajputs to give their daughters in marriage
to Emperor Akbar. Now, it is an anathema even for an ordinary Rajput to marry
his daughter to a non-Rajput Hindu, not to speak of a royal Rajput marrying his
daughter to a Muslim, whom he considers as malesha (unclean). But this case was
different as this matrimonial alliance was
blessed and sanctified by the Brahman.
The Rajput rulers led by the Ambar family accepted the
proposal without blinking an eye.40 This
opened the door for Brahmans, Rajputs, Khatris, Banias and Kayasthas in Akbar’s
administration. Many of them held prominent positions, Birbal and Todar Mal
were among the “jewels” of Akbar’s court and Raja Man Singh was a very distinguished and decorated commander in the Mughal
army. In gratitude, Akbar cancelled the Jazia (tax on non-Muslims) imposed by
the earlier Muslim rulers. The Rajputs played a major role in the expansion and
consolidation of Mughal Empire. The Brahmans chanted a new mantra, Ishwaro va Dillishwaro va, (The
emperor of Delhi is as great as God).”35
Akbar’s Rajput in-laws made it
sure that there was no royal Rajput left who would taunt them: “You have sent
your daughters to the haram
(concubine quarters) of a malesha.” The only Rajput sovereign, who
refused to kowtow to Akbar, was Maharana Partap. All the Rajput vassals joined
Akbar in defeating this valiant man.41
Radical
Bhagats
On the other hand radical bhagats¾Namdev,
Kabir and Ravi Das repudiated Vaishnava beliefs. Calling these bhagats as
Hindus or Hindu reformers betrays ignorance of their ideology or it is a
disingenuous attempt to hijack their ideology. These bhagats denounced the
tyranny of caste system on the one hand and bigotry of the Muslims on the
other. They were neither Hindus nor Muslims; they were humanists. That is why
Jagjit Singh and Daljit Singh have characterized these bhagats as “radical
bhagats”42, 43 to distinguish them from Vaisnava bhagats:
Muslim is one eyed whereas Hindu is totally blind spiritually. Wiser than both is the one, who sees God in all. Temples are sacred to Hindus and mosques to Muslims whereas Nam Dev focuses his mind on the One and Only, Who is not restricted either to the temple or the mosque.
AGGS, Namdev, p. 875.
“O mullah, ponder over the fact that God resides within all,” Kabir proclaims loudly, “The same God is within both Hindus and Muslims.”
AGGS, Kabir, p. 483.
O my brothers, Simrti is based on the Vedas. It has brought the chains of the caste system and ropes of rituals and liturgy to entrap you.”
AGGS, Kabir, p. 329.
I shall not sing the endless verses and hymns of Vedas, Puranas and Shastars. I shall play a steady tune on the flute of love for the Formless one Whose abode is Eternal.”
AGGS, Namdev, p. 972.
If one determines good or bad actions on the basis of Vedas and Puranas, one’s mind is filled with doubt and worry. These scriptures do not tell how to cure self-conceit and arrogance.
AGGS, Ravi Das, p. 346.
O Brahman! Inside the womb there is no lineage or caste! All are created from the seed of Brahm (God). If you are Brahman born of Brahman mother then why did you not take birth by some other route? How come you are Brahman and I am Shudar? How come I am defiled (blood) and you are holy (milk)?”
AGGS, Kabir, p. 324.
After thinking over the meaning of “Ram”, Kabir says that there are differences in the usage of this word. While everyone uses “Ram” for God, the actors use it for Ram Chandar, the son of Dasrath. Kabir dwells on “Ram”, Who is present in all whereas the other (Ram Chandar) was only himself.
AGGS, Kabir, p. 1374.
One stone is adorned whereas another is trodden under feet. If one is god, the other is also god. Namdev says: I serve only God.
AGGS, Namdev, p. 525.
That is why Guru Arjan honored these radical bhagats by incorporating their hymns in
the AGGS, whereas there is no mention of any Vaishnava bhagat.
Nath
Tradition
In his long composition, Sidh Gost and other hymns Guru Nanak rejected every thing the sidhas/yogis stood for. Guru Nanak’s
attitude was the same for other ascetic orders. The sidhas were searching for
individual salvation through acetic and celibate life whereas Guru Nanak
championed householder life as the right path for the salvation, as it is the
householder, who sustains society. The presence of Nath terminology such as kundalini, ida, pingala, sushmana, chakra and pranayam in Guru
Nanak’s composition can in no way be construed that it has any relevance to
Nanakian philosophy. These terms are there because Guru Nanak refuted
unequivocally the rationale behind such practices for the realization of God. Even McLeod himself reaches the same conclusion when
he says:
“Here there is no kundalini, no ida, pingala, and no susumana, no chakra and no pranayam.”44
One who works hard to make an honest living and practices charity finds the righteous path. Never touch the feet of the one who claims to be a spiritual guide but begs alms.
AGGS, M 1, p. 1245.
Why should he beg alms, who claims to dwell on God?
AGGS, M 1, p. 953.
Yogi calls himself jati (celibate) but has no control over his sexual drive.
AGGS, M 1, p. 903.
In spite of all efforts the ascetic cannot control his sexual urge.
AGGS, M 1, p. 906.
If celibacy could lead to salvation then why does not a eunuch obtain salvation?
AGGS, Kabir, p. 423.
O Yogi! Let contentment be your earrings, hard work a begging bowl and bag, and meditation on God be the ashes you put on your body. Let the thought of death be your patched quilt, chastity your yoga, and staff faith in God. Let your Aee Panth (a sect of yogis) be universal brotherhood and subdue your mind to conquer worldly temptations. Salute again and again the One Who is eternal, immaculate, timeless, indestructible, and changeless throughout the ages.
AGGS, Jap 28, p. 6.
Given the above verses of Guru Nanak, it comes as
astonishing, that first Jakobsh says: “Guru Nanak’s theology is a combination of Vaishnava
tradition and the Nath tradition, with possible elements of Sufism as well.”1
Here she follows in the line of McLeod, but immediately in the next paragraph
she contradicts herself (in the line of Grewal) when she draws the distinction
of Guru Nanak against Kabir and yogis:
To understand Guru
Nanak’s attitude towards women and gender in general, it is useful to compare
his theological underpinnings with those of Kabir, the fountainhead of Sant
synthesis. Though Kabir lived 150 years before Guru Nanak, the similarity of
their teachings is striking, and as Karine Schomer points out, it is precisely
this aspect as opposed to historical connection or institutional foci that
closely binds Guru Nanak and Kabir. … Yet, especially with respect to Kabir’s
attitude towards women, there appears to be a subtle break in the similarities
between the two. Grewal (1996:150) explains this in terms of their relative
standings in the sant tradition of Northern India. … For Yogis, whose primary
aim was the vanquishing of desire, particularly sexual desire, women were great
obstacles to be conquered. Kabir’s attitude towards woman was similar to that
of the yogis in that he viewed women as seductive, as tempting men away from
their true calling. Guru Nanak, on the
other hand, criticized yogis for their solitary, acetic spiritual search.
Contrary to the yogic apprehension of sexuality, Guru Nanak furthered the ideal
of householder.45
References
1. Doris R. Jakobsh. Relocating Gender In Sikh History:
Transformation, Meaning and Identity. New Delhi: Oxford University Press,
2003, p. 23.
2. N. Singh. “Guru Nanak and the ‘Sants’: A Reappraisal.” International Journal of Punjab Studies,
2001, 8 (1), pp. 1-34.
3.
N. Singh. “Guru Nanak and ‘Sants’: A Response to Professor McLeod.” International Journal of Punjab Studies,
2002, 9 (1), pp. 1-4.
4.
W. H. McLeod. Discovering the Sikhs:
Autobiography of a Historian. Delhi: Permanent Black, 2004, p. 213.
5.
Kirpal Singh. The Japji: The Message of
Guru Nanak. Delhi: Sawan Kirpal Publications, 1981.
6. Mark Juergensmeyer. Radhasoami Reality: The Logic of A Modern Faith. Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1996.
7. W. H. McLeod. Discovering
the Sikhs: Autobiography of a Historian. Delhi: Permanent Black, 2004, pp.
85, 93-94.
8.
Harjot Oberoi. The Construction of
Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition.
New Delhi: Oxford
University Press, 1994, pp. xi-xii.
9. W. H.
McLeod. The Evolution of the Sikh
Community in Sikhs and Sikhism.
New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 17-18.
10. Ibid.,
pp. 87-88.
11. Kirpal
Singh. The Japji: The Message of Guru
Nanak. Delhi: Sawan Kirpal Publications, 1981, p. about the author.
12. Mark Juergensmeyer.
Radhasoami Reality: The Logic of A Modern
Faith. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996, p.53: photo of Sawan
Singh with disciples.
13. Jagat
Singh. The Science of the Soul. Beas:
Radha Soami Satsang Beas,
7th edition, 1987, photo of Sardar Bahadur Jagat Singh Ji Maharaj.
14. Daryai L.
Kapur. Call of The Great Master.
Beas: Radha Soami Satsang Beas, 7th edition, 1986, pp. 79-80.
15. Jagat
Singh. The Science of the Soul. Beas:
Radha Soami Satsang Beas,
7th edition, 1987, p. ix.
16. Philosophy Of The Masters, series IV.
Beas: Radha Soami Satsang Beas, third edition, 1977, pp. lxvi-lxvii.
17. Philosophy Of The Masters, series III.
Beas: Radha Soami Satsang Beas, third edition, 1977, p. 21.
18. Kirpal
Singh. A Great Saint, Baba Jaimal Singh: His Life & Teachings.
Delhi: Ruhani Satsang, 1973, pp. 19, 55, 83.
19. Ibid., p. 42.
20. Ibid., p. 46.
21. Ibid., p. 55.
22. Ibid., pp. 63, 71, 75, 81.
23. Spiritual Letters. Beas: Radha Soami
Satsang Beas, 7th edition, 1998, pp.259-60.
24. Kirpal Singh. A Great Saint, Baba Jaimal
Singh: His Life & Teachings. Delhi: Ruhani Satsang, 1973, p. 82.
25. Ibid., p. 84.
26.
W. H. McLeod. Guru Nanak and the Sikh
Religion. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 23.
27. Ibid., pp. 23-25.
28. J. S. Grewal. The Sikh Of The Punjab. New Delhi:
Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 62-63, 76.
29. Surjit Hans. A
Reconstruction Of Sikh History From Sikh Literature. Jalandhar: ABS
Publications, 1988, pp. 204-206.
30. Sangat
Singh. The Sikhs In History. New
Delhi: Uncommon Books, 4th edition, 2001, pp. 97, 100-101.
31. Kirpal Singh.
The Japji: The Message of Guru Nanak. Delhi: Sawan Kirpal Publications,
1981, p. 79.
32. Bhai Gurdas. Varan
Bhai Gurdas. (Punjabi) Amritsar: Jawahar Singh Kirpal Singh and Co., pp.
90-102.
33. Kirpal Singh. The Japji: The Message of Guru Nanak. Delhi: Sawan Kirpal
Publications, 1981, p. 121.
34. Kirpal Singh. The Teachings Of Kirpal Singh. Delhi and Bowling Green: Sawan
Kirpal Publications, three volumes in one Book, 1985, Vol. II, p 50.
35. Gokul C. Narang. Transformation Of Sikhism. New Delhi: New Book Society of India,
5th edition, 1960, p. 98.
36. Daljit Singh.
Sikhism: A Comparative Study of Its Theology and Mysticism. Amritsar: Singh
Brothers, 1994, pp. 61-82, 157-174.
37. Niharranjan Ray. The Sikh Gurus and the Sikh Society. Patiala: Punjabi University,
1970, p. 26.
38. Jagjit Singh. The Sikh Revolution: A Perspective View. New Delhi: Bahri
Publications, 4th reprint, 1998, p. 149.
39. Sangat Singh. The Sikhs In History. New Delhi: Uncommon Books, 4th edition, 2001,
p. xvi.
40. Jagjit Singh. The Sikh Revolution: A Perspective View. New Delhi: Bahri
Publications, 4th reprint, 1998, pp. 213-216.
41. Ibid., p. 216.
42. Ibid., pp. 70-76.
43. Daljit Singh.
Sikhism: A Comparative Study of Its Theology and Mysticism. Amritsar: Singh
Brothers, 1994, pp. 157-174.
44.
W. H. McLeod. Guru Nanak and the Sikh
Religion. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 192.
45. Doris R. Jakobsh.
Relocating Gender In Sikh History: Transformation, Meaning and Identity. New
Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003, pp. 23-24.
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